Volume 26, Issue 1-3, 2023

Bilingualism: Language and Cognition（SSCI一区，2022 IF：3.6，排名：17/194）2023 年第1-3期共发文55篇，其中研究性文章39篇，评论性文章3篇，主题性文章1篇，研究笔记2篇，作者回应1篇，其他学者评论7篇，报告性文章1篇，观点性文章1篇。研究论文涉及非母语者与母语者的比较研究、非言语因素对语言选择的影响、ERP研究、混合使用语言的影响等。欢迎转发扩散！

往期推荐：

刊讯丨SSCI 期刊《双语：语言与认知》2022年第5期

刊讯丨SSCI 期刊《双语：语言与认知》2022年第4期

刊讯丨SSCI 期刊《双语：语言与认知》2022年第2-3期

目录

Issue 1

Keynote Article

■ Rethinking multilingual experience through a Systems Framework of Bilingualism, by Debra A. Titone, Mehrgol Tiv, Pages 1-16.

Peer Commentaries

■ How to frame bilingualism in context: Putting people and places in mind, by Judith F. Kroll, Ariel Chan, Andrew Cheng, Gregory Scontras, Pages 17-19.

■ The systems framework dispels causal illusions and organizes multi-causal models, by Catherine L. Caldwell-Harris, Pages 20-21.

■ Challenges of Complexity, and Possible Solutions: a Commentary on Rethinking Multilingual Experience through a Systems Framework of Bilingualism by Titone and Tiv, by Jason Gullifer, John A. E. Anderson, Pages 22-24.

■ The Importance of Recognizing Social Contexts in Research on Bilingualism, by Gigi Luk, John G. Grundy, Pages 25-27.

■ Exploring nuance in both experience and adaptation: Commentary on Titone and Tiv (2022), by Vincent DeLuca, Pages 28-30.

■ Bilingual language cognition as a complex adaptive system, by Nick C. Ellis, Pages 31-32.

■ Sociocultural dimensions of early dual language learning, by Fred Genesee, Pages 33-35.

Research Articles

■ Bilingual interactional contexts predict executive functions in older adults, by Hwajin Yang, Germaine Y. Q. Tng, Gilaine Rui Ng, Wee Qin Ng, Pages 36-47.

■ Word order preference in sign influences speech in hearing bimodal bilinguals but not vice versa: Evidence from behavior and eye-gaze, by Francie Manhardt, Susanne Brouwer, Eveline van Wijk, Aslı Özyürek, Pages 48-61.

■ Dynamic engagement of cognitive control in intra-sentential code-switching during comprehension, by Siyi Jiang, Lvheng Ma, Baoguo Chen, Pages 62-77.

■ A study on the executive functioning skills of Greek–English bilingual children – a nearest neighbour approach, by Athanasia Papastergiou, Eirini Sanoudaki, Marco Tamburelli, Vasiliki Chondrogianni, Pages 78-94.

■ Do bilinguals get the joke? Humor comprehension in mono- and bilinguals, by Emilia V. Ezrina, Virginia Valian, Pages 95-111.

■  How to quantify bilingual experience? Findings from a Delphi consensus survey, by Cécile De Cat, Draško Kašćelan, Philippe Prévost, Ludovica Serratrice, Laurie Tuller, Sharon Unsworth, The Q-BEx Consortium, Pages 112-124.

■ Introducing grip force as a nonverbal measure of bilingual feelings, by Dieter Thoma, Julia Hüsam, Kimberley Wielscher, Pages 125-137.

■ Derivational awareness in late bilinguals increases along with proficiency without a clear influence of the suffixes shared with L1,   by Amélie Menut, Marc Brysbaert, Séverine Casalis, Pages 138-151.

■ Why non-native speakers sometimes outperform native speakers in agreement processing, by Eun-Kyoung Rosa Lee, Colin Phillips, Pages 152-164.

■ When left is right: The role of typological similarity in multilinguals' inhibitory control performance, by Sarah Von Grebmer Zu Wolfsthurn, Anna Gupta, Leticia Pablos, Niels O. Schiller, Pages 165-178.

■ What modulates the acquisition of difficult structures in a heritage language? A study on Portuguese in contact with French, German and Italian, by Jacopo Torregrossa, Cristina Flores, Esther Rinke, Pages 179-192.

■ External non-linguistic cues influence language selection during a forced choice task, by Awel Vaughan-Evans, Pages 193-201.

Review Article

■ Riding the (brain) waves! Using neural oscillations to inform bilingualism research, by Eleonora Rossi, Sergio Miguel Pereira Soares, Yanina Prystauka, Megan Nakamura, Jason Rothman, Pages 202-215.

Research Article

■ Children's likelihood to perform adult-like in word association test: Effects of bilingualism and distributional properties  of word relationships, by Boji P. W. Lam, Li Sheng, Xian Zhang, Pages 216-230.

■ Evidence for two stages of prediction in non-native speakers: A visual-world eye-tracking study, by Ruth E. Corps, Meijian Liao, Martin J. Pickering, Pages 231-243.

Addendum

■ Bilingualism: Language and Cognition Volume 26 Issue 1 – ADDENDUM, Pages 244.

Editorial

■ Multilingual and social experience: The Systems Framework of Bilingualism, by Jubin Abutalebi, Harald Clahsen, Pages 245-246.

Author's Response

■ Rethinking Multilingual Experience through a Systems Framework of Bilingualism: Response to Commentaries, by Debra A. Titone, Mehrgol Tiv, Pages 247-251.

Corrigendum

■ Sociocultural dimensions of early dual language learning – CORRIGENDUM, by Fred Genesee, Pages 252.

Issue 2 

Review Article

■ Prediction in bilingual sentence processing: How prediction differs in a later learned language from a first language, by Judith Schlenter, Pages 253-267.

Research Article 

■ Morphological awareness and its role in early word reading in English monolinguals, Spanish–English, and Chinese–English simultaneous bilinguals, by Rebecca A. Marks, Danielle Labotka, Xin Sun, Nia Nickerson, Kehui Zhang, Rachel L. Eggleston, Chi-Lin Yu, Yuuko Uchikoshi, Fumiko Hoeft, Ioulia Kovelman, Pages 268-283.

■Changing pronoun interpretations across-languages: discourse priming in Spanish–English bilingual speakers, by Carla Contemori, Natalia I. Minjarez Oppenheimer, Pages 284-292.

■ ERP differences between monolinguals and bilinguals: The role of linguistic distance, by Cassandra Morrison, Vanessa Taler, Pages 293-306

■ Subcortical plasticity and enhanced neural synchrony in multilingual adults, by Zahra Jafari, Caroline Villeneuve, Jordon Thompson, Amineh Koravand, Pages 307-316.

■ Structured variation, language experience, and crosslinguistic influence shape child heritage speakers’ Spanish direct objects, by Naomi Shin, Alejandro Cuza, Liliana Sánchez, Pages 317-329.

■ An ex-Gaussian analysis of eye movements in L2 reading, by Steven G. Luke, Rachel Yu Liu, Kyle Nelson, Jared Denton, Michael W. Child, Pages 330-344.

■ Conceptual metaphor activation in Chinese–English bilinguals, by Huilan Yang, J. Nick Reid, Yuru Mei, Pages 345-355.

■ Tracking reading development in an English language university-level bridging program: evidence from eye-movements during passage reading, by Daniel Schmidtke, Sadaf Rahmanian, Anna L. Moro, Pages 356-370.

■ Orthographic and semantic priming effects in neighbour cognates: Experiments and simulations, by Ton Dijkstra, David Peeters, Wessel Hieselaar, Aaron van Geffen, Pages 371-383.

■ Competition between form-related words in bilingual sentence reading: Effects of language proficiency, by Maud Pélissier, Dag Haugland, Bjørn Handeland, Beatrice Zitong Urland, Allison Wetterlin, Linda Wheeldon, Steven Frisson, Pages 384-401.

■ Language switching in different contexts and modalities: Response-stimulus interval influences cued-naming but not voluntary-naming or comprehension language-switching costs, by Angela de Bruin, Tianyi Xu, Pages 402-415.

■ The foreign language effect on motivational quotes, by Barbara Braida, Javier Rodríguez-Ferreiro, Mireia Hernández, Pages 416-424.

■ Semantically related gestures facilitate language comprehension during simultaneous interpreting, by Eléonore Arbona, Kilian G. Seeber, Marianne Gullberg, Pages 425-439.

Research Notes

■ 'Good for you!' Processing social emotions in L2 discourse comprehension: an ERP study, by Andrea González-García Aldariz, Pablo Rodríguez-Gómez, Carlos Romero-Rivas, Sara Rodríguez-Cuadrado, Alice Foucart, Eva M. Moreno, Pages 440-445.

■ Child, would you sacrifice yourself? A study on the Foreign Language Effect in children, by Celia Fernández-Sanz, Carlos Romero-Rivas, Sara Rodriguez-Cuadrado, Pages 446-455.

Registered Report

■ Multilingualism and mentalizing abilities in adults, by Ashley Chung-Fat-Yim, Ronda F. Lo, Raymond A. Mar, Pages 456-467.

Issue 3

Research Article

■ Is the digit effect a cognate effect? Digits (still) differ from pictures in non-phonologically mediated language switching, by Hong Liu, Adel Chaouch-Orozco, Pages 469-475.

■ Emotional factors of early vocabulary in Spanish as a second language, by Natividad Hernández Muñoz, Ana Blanco Canales, Pages 476-489.

■ Multilingualism and verbal short-term/working memory: Evidence from academics, by Valantis Fyndanis, Sarah Cameron, Pernille Bonnevie Hansen, Monica I. Norvik, Hanne Gram Simonsen, Pages 490-503.

■ Consequences of mixing and switching languages for retrieval and articulation, by Maria Fernanda Gavino, Matthew Goldrick, Pages 504-515.

■ The contributions of proficiency and semantics to the bilingual sentence superiority effect, by Portia N. Washington, Robert W. Wiley, Pages 516-526.

■ Graded bilingual effects on attentional network function in Chinese high school students, by Adam John Privitera, Mohammad Momenian, Brendan Weekes, Pages 527-537.

■ The role of daily spoken language on the performance of language tests: The Indonesian experience, by Heni Gerda Pesau, Aria Saloka Immanuel, Augustina Sulastri, Gilles van Luijtelaar, Pages 538-549.

Perspective

■ On trade-offs in bilingualism and moving beyond the Stacking the Deck fallacy, by Evelina Leivada, Vittoria Dentella, Camilla Masullo, Jason Rothman, Pages 550-555.

Research Article

■ L1-Korean speakers' definiteness processing in L2 English: A visual world paradigm eye tracking study, by Hyunah Ahn, Mi-Jeong Song, Pages 556-569. 

■ The foreign-language effect on self-positivity bias: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence, by Wanyu Zhang, Yuxin Lan, Qian Li, Zhao Gao, Jiehui Hu, Shan Gao, Pages 570-579.

■ Linguistic factors modulating gender assignment in Spanish–English bilingual speech, by Abel Cruz, Pages 580-591.

■ The effects of multilingual and multicultural practices on divergent thinking. Implications for plurilingual creativity paradigm, by Anatoliy V. Kharkhurin, Valeriya Koncha, Morteza Charkhabi, Pages 592-609.

■ On the way to an interpreter advantage in coordination: evidence from interpreting students across different training stages, by Fei Zhong, Yanping Dong, Pages 610-620.

Review Article

■ The association between language exposure and nonword repetition performance in bilingual children: A systematic review and meta-analysis, by Gianmatteo Farabolini, Analí R. Taboh, Maria Gabriella Ceravolo, Federico Guerra, Pages 621-635.

Corrigendum

■ Second language acquisition of grammatical rules: The effects of learning condition, rule difficulty, and executive function – CORRIGENDUM, by Marta Rivera, Daniela Paolieri, Antonio Iniesta, Ana I Pérez, Teresa Bajo, Pages 636.

Addendum

■ Riding the (brain) waves! Using neural oscillations to inform bilingualism research – ADDENDUM, by Eleonora Rossi, Sergio Miguel Pereira Soares, Yanina Prystauka, Megan Nakamura, Jason Rothman, Pages 637.

第1期摘要

Rethinking multilingual experience through a Systems Framework of Bilingualism

Debra A. Titon, Department of Psychology, Centre for Research on Brain, Language, & Music, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Mehrgol Tiv, Department of Psychology, Centre for Research on Brain, Language, & Music, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Abstract In "The Devil's Dictionary", Bierce (1911) defined language as "The music with which we charm the serpents guarding another's treasure." This satirical definition reflects a core truth – humans communicate using language to accomplish social goals. In this Keynote, we urge cognitive scientists and neuroscientists to more fully embrace sociolinguistic and sociocultural experiences as part of their theoretical and empirical purview. To this end, we review theoretical antecedents of such approaches, and offer a new framework – the Systems Framework of Bilingualism – that we hope will be useful in this regard. We conclude with new questions to nudge our discipline towards a more nuanced, inclusive, and socially-informed scientific understanding of multilingual experience. We hope to engage a wide array of researchers united under the broad umbrella of multilingualism (e.g., researchers in neurocognition, sociolinguistics, and applied scientists).

Key words bilingualism, multilingualism, experience, cognition, sociolinguistics, ecolinguistics, social context, social ecology

Bilingual interactional contexts predict executive functions in older adults

Hwajin Yang, Singapore Management University, Singapore

Germaine Y. Q. Tng, Singapore Management University, Singapore

Gilaine Rui Ng, Singapore Management University, Singapore

Abstract Drawing on the adaptive control hypothesis, we examined whether older adults' bilingual interactional contexts of conversational exchanges would predict important indices of executive functions (EF). We assessed participants' engagement in each bilingual interactional context – single-language, dual-language, and dense code-switching – and their performance on a series of nonverbal EF measures. Sixty-nine healthy older adults (M age =70.39 years; ages 60–93) were recruited from local community centers. We found that the dense code-switching context was associated with enhanced overall EF, but not individual facets of EF (inhibitory control, shifting, and updating). These findings held true when we controlled for a host of covariates. Our findings shed light on aging bilinguals' interactional contexts as crucial bilin- gual experiences that modulate overall EF. Given that bilingualism is a multidimensional con- struct, rather than a unidimensional variable, our study underscores the importance of more fine-grained operationalisation of bilingualism when studying its impacts on EF.

Key words bilingualism, executive function, interactional contexts

Word order preference in sign influences speech in hearing bimodal bilinguals but not vice versa: Evidence from behavior and eye-gaze

Francie Manhardt, Centre for Language Studies, Radboud University, Erasmusplein 1, 6525 HT Nijmegen, The Netherlands

Susanne Brouwer,  Centre for Language Studies, Radboud University, Erasmusplein 1, 6525 HT Nijmegen, The Netherlands

Eveline van Wijk,  Centre for Language Studies, Radboud University, Erasmusplein 1, 6525 HT Nijmegen, The Netherlands

Abstract We investigated cross-modal influences between speech and sign in hearing bimodal bilinguals, proficient in a spoken and a sign language, and its consequences on visual attention during message preparation using eye-tracking. We focused on spatial expressions in which sign languages, unlike spoken languages, have a modality-driven preference to mention grounds (big objects) prior to figures (smaller objects). We compared hearing bimodal bilinguals' spatial expressions and visual attention in Dutch and Dutch Sign Language (N= 18) to those of their hearing non-signing (N= 20) and deaf signing peers (N=18). In speech, hearing bimodal bilinguals expressed more ground-first descriptions and fixated grounds more than hearing non-signers, showing influence from sign. In sign, they used as many ground-first descriptions as deaf signers and fixated grounds equally often, demonstrating no influence from speech. Cross-linguistic influence of word order preference and visual attention in hearing bimodal bilinguals appears to be one-directional modulated by modality-driven differences.

Key words Bimodal bilinguals, eye-tracking, word order, cross-linguistic influence, visual attention

Dynamic engagement of cognitive control in intra-sentential code-switching during comprehension

Siyi Jiang, Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China.

Lvheng Ma, Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China.

Baoguo Chen, Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China.

Abstract This study investigated whether the deployment of cognitive control was modulated by the intra-sentential code-switching types during comprehension. L1-dominant Chinese–English bilinguals were administered a self-paced reading task in two reading contexts – namely, alternation context and dense code-switching context. We assessed language switch cost and reversed language dominance effect in the self-paced reading task and examined how these language control measures related to domain-general inhibition and monitoring capacities. The results showed a larger switch cost asymmetry in alternation context compared to dense CS context. In addition, bilinguals' inhibition skills were associated with second language (L2) switch cost in alternation context, while monitoring tended to predict the language dominance effect in dense code-switching context. These findings suggest that alternation context exerts high requirement to reactive inhibition while dense code-switching context tends to induce proactive monitoring during comprehension. We conclude that intra-sentential code-switching types trigger different aspects of cognitive control during comprehension. 

Key words bilingual, inhibition, monitoring, code-switching types, language contro

A study on the executive functioning skills of Greek–English bilingual children – a nearest neighbour approach

Athanasia Papastergiou,  School of Arts, Culture and Language, Bangor University, Bangor, UK and School of Philosophy, Psychology 

Eirini Sanoudaki,  School of Arts, Culture and Language, Bangor University, Bangor, UK and School of Philosophy, Psychology

Marco Tamburelli,  School of Arts, Culture and Language, Bangor University, Bangor, UK and School of Philosophy, Psychology

Abstract Findings of bilingual participants outperforming their monolingual counterparts in executive functioning tasks have been repeatedly reported in the literature (Bialystok, 2017). However, uncontrolled factors or imperfectly matched samples might affect the reliability of these findings. This study aims to take into account a range of relevant variables in combination with innovative analyses to investigate the performance of one unstudied language group, Greek–English bilingual children in the north of England, compared to monolingual control groups. Our battery of executive function tasks taps into inhibition, updating and shifting. We use k-means nearest neighbour methods to match the groups and factor analysis to determine language proficiency. We find that bilinguals' accuracy is on a par with their monolingual peers – however, they are faster in inhibition and working memory tasks. Our study provides strong evidence for the presence of a bilingual advantage in these domains, while making important methodological contributions to the field. 

Key words executive function, supplementary school, Greek, English, bilingualism, language skills, language use, k-means

Do bilinguals get the joke? Humor comprehension in mono- and bilinguals

Emilia V. Ezrina, The City University of New York, Graduate Center, New York, USA; Hunter College, New York, USA

Virginia Valian, The City University of New York, Graduate Center, New York, USA; Hunter College, New York, USA

Abstract Understanding jokes may differ between mono- and bilinguals because of differences in lexical access; fluency and sense of humor may also be relevant. Three experiments examined English-language joke comprehension in monolingual (n =91) and bilingual (n= 111) undergraduates, Russian–English bilinguals (n = 39), and MTurk monolinguals (n= 77). Participants rated jokes and non-jokes in English as funny or not funny. We assessed the effects of bilingualism, language dominance, fluency, sense of humor, experience, and motivation on response time (RT) and sensitivity (d' ) in identifying jokes. Bilingualism predicted neither RT nor d ' in mono- and English-dominant bilingual undergraduates; English fluency predicted d' . Russians were slower than English-dominant bilinguals but were MORE not less sensitive to humor. MTurk monolinguals were faster than undergraduates and equally sensitive; sense of humor predicted sensitivity. Overall, humor processing is alternately affected by fluency, sense of humor, and motivation, depending on the population. Bilingualism perse is not a factor. 

Key words bilingualism, humor processing, fluency, sense of humor

How to quantify bilingual experience? Findings from a Delphi consensus survey

Cécile De Cat,  University of Leeds and UiT Arctic University of Norway 

Draško Kašćelan,  University of Leeds

Philippe Prévost, Université de Tours

Abstract While most investigations of bilingualism document participants' language background, there is an absence of consensus on how to quantify bilingualism. The high number of different language background questionnaires used by researchers and practitioners jeopardises data comparability and cross-pollination between research and practice. Using the Delphi consensus survey method, we asked 132 panellists (researchers, speech and language therapists, teachers) from 29 countries to rate 124 statements on a 5-point agreement scale. Consensus was pre-defined as 75% agreement threshold. After two survey rounds, 79% of statements reached consensus. The need for common measures to quantify bilingualism was acknowledged by 96% of respondents. Agreement was reached to document: language exposure and use, language difficulties, proficiency (when it cannot be assessed directly), education and literacy, input quality, language mixing practices, and attitudes (towards languages and language mixing). We discuss the implications of these findings for the creation of a new tool to quantify bilingual experience. 

Key words quantifying bilingualism in children, Delphi consensus survey, researchers, speech and language therapists, teachers

Introducing grip force as a nonverbal measure of bilingual feelings

Dieter Thoma, Department of English Linguistics, University of Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany

Julia Hüsam, Department of English Linguistics, University of Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany

Kimberley Wielscher, Department of English Linguistics, University of Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany

Abstract Bilinguals' emotions can vary in intensity with the language of a stimulus. Yet, extant research has somewhat surprisingly accepted inconsistent results from implicit nonverbal and explicit verbal emotion measures. To date, it is unclear if this inconsistency recurs to conceptual or methodological differences. We therefore investigated if squeezing a handheld dynamometer is a valid nonverbal, "visceral" alternative to self-reported language-dependent feelings by comparing explicit ratings to neuro-physiological emotional reactions. We replicated two pupillometry experiments inducing language-dependent emotions through sentence reading (Study 1) and listening to narrative video commercials (Study 2) of low and high emotionality in the first or second language. Pupillometry confirmed that bilinguals are more sensitive to the low-high emotionality contrast in their first than second language. Grip force (but not duration) mirrored these findings, whereas verbal ratings did not. We thus recommend grip force as a new attentional, nonverbal measure for bilingualism research. 

Key words bilingualism, emotion, feelings, pupillometry, dynamometer

Derivational awareness in late bilinguals increases along with proficiency without a clear influence of the suffixes shared with L1

Amélie Menut,  Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 9193 - SCALab - Sciences Cognitives et Sciences Affectives, F-59000 Lille, France;  Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium

Marc Brysbaert,  Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium

Séverine Casalis,  Univ. Lille, CNRS, UMR 9193 - SCALab - Sciences Cognitives et Sciences Affectives, F-59000 Lille, France

Abstract Morphological awareness contributes to vocabulary acquisition and reading in bilingual chil-dren who learned English after their native language. In line with these considerations, we further investigated L2 processing in late adult bilinguals where questions related to morphology need to be clarified. French–English speakers (N= 92) were assessed for three morphological awareness stages: lexical semantic knowledge, syntactic knowledge, and distributive knowledge. We investigated whether the evolution of morphological awareness was related to L2 proficiency and whether it was facilitated by the presence of suffixes shared in L1 and L2. Our results confirmed the influence of language proficiency at each stage of morphological awareness. However, the hypothesis of an advantage of suffixes shared between French and English was not confirmed as no clear advantage was found for those suffixes. Our findings are discussed in line with the morphological congruence hypothesis and compared with the previous results in the literature. 

Key words bilingualism, morphological awareness, proficiency

Why non-native speakers sometimes outperform native speakers in agreement processing

Eun-Kyoung Rosa Lee,  Department of Linguistics, University of Maryland, College Park, USA

Colin Phillips,  Department of Linguistics, University of Maryland, College Park, USA

Abstract It is well-known that native English speakers sometimes erroneously accept subject-verb agreement violations when there is a number-matching attractor (e.g., *The key to the cabinets were…). Whether bilinguals whose L1 lacks number agreement are prone to such interference is unclear, given previous studies that report conflicting findings using different structures, participant groups, and experimental designs. To resolve the conflict, we examined highly proficient Korean–English bilinguals' susceptibility to agreement attraction, comparing prepositional phrase (PP) and relative clause (RC) modifiers in a speeded acceptability judgment task and a speeded forced-choice comprehension task. The bilinguals' judgments revealed attraction with RCs but not with PPs, while reaction times indicated attraction with both structures. The results therefore showed L2 attraction in all measures, with the consistent exception of judgments for PPs. We argue that this supports an overall native-like agreement processing mechanism, augmented by an additional monitoring mechanism that filters explicit judgments in simple structures. 

Key words agreement attraction, sentence processing, subject-verb agreement, prepositional phrase, relative clause

When left is right: The role of typological similarity in multilinguals' inhibitory control performance

Sarah Von Grebmer Zu Wolfsthurn, Leiden University Center for Linguistics (LUCL), Reuvensplaats 3-4, 2311 BE Leiden, The Netherlands; Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition (LIBC), LUMC, PO Box 9600, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands

Anna Gupta,  University of Konstanz, Universitätsstraße 10, 78464 Konstanz, Germany

Leticia Pablos, Leiden University Center for Linguistics (LUCL), Reuvensplaats 3-4, 2311 BE Leiden, The Netherlands; Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition (LIBC), LUMC, PO Box 9600, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands

Abstract Both inhibitory control and typological similarity between two languages feature frequently in current research on multilingual cognitive processing mechanisms. Yet, the modulatory effect of speaking two typologically highly similar languages on inhibitory control performance remains largely unexplored. However, this is a critical issue because it speaks directly to the organisation of the multilingual's cognitive architecture. In this study, we examined the influence of typological similarity on inhibitory control performance via a spatial Stroop paradigm in native Italian and native Dutch late learners of Spanish. Contrary to our hypothesis, we did not find evidence for a differential Stroop effect size for the typologically similar group (Italian–Spanish) compared to the typologically dissimilar group (Dutch–Spanish). Our results therefore suggest a limited influence of typological similarity on inhibitory control performance. The study has critical implications for characterising inhibitory control processes in multilinguals.

Key words inhibitory control performance, typological similarity, spatial Stroop task, late language learners

What modulates the acquisition of difficult structures in a heritage language? A study on Portuguese in contact with French, German and Italian

Jacopo Torregrossa, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany

Cristina Flores,  Centro de Estudos Humanísticos, Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal

Esther Rinke,  Centro de Estudos Humanísticos, Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal

Abstract Several studies on heritage language (HL) acquisition investigate a single linguistic structure, showing how language exposure or cross-linguistic effects affect its acquisition. Here, we consider HL speaking children's mastery of several linguistic structures using a cloze-test. We examine how their language competence is affected by language exposure variables and age. We tested 180 children between the ages of 8 and 16, living in Switzerland and speaking European Portuguese as HL and French, German or Italian as their societal language. The items of the cloze-test cluster around two levels of difficulty, with the items at the second level corresponding to structures that are acquired late in Portuguese monolingual acquisition. Older age and a greater amount of formal instruction in the HL lead to better performance. The role of the amount of formal instruction varies based on the level of difficulty of the target structures. Cross-linguistic influence does not affect the results. 

Key words heritage Portuguese, morphosyntactic proficiency, cloze-test, language exposure, heritage language instruction, cross-linguistic effects

External non-linguistic cues influence language selection during a forced choice task

Awel Vaughan-Evans, School of Human and Behavioural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, Wales, LL57 2AS

Abstract This study investigated the effect of external non-linguistic cues on language selection in bilinguals. Participants viewed photographs and stated in which language they would speak to the individuals in those photographs via a button press. These images were manipulated such that external cues (the ‘speak Welsh’ logo, presented in the form of a poster or a lanyard) were present or absent. Participants responded faster and selected Welsh as their language of choice more often in trials that contained a language cue than in trials in which a language cue was absent. Furthermore, trials containing a lanyard had a greater effect on participant performance than trials containing a poster. These results suggest that external cues can influence language selection in bilinguals, and that the perceived reliability of the cue can modulate this effect. These findings have implications for the language selection literature and could inform the development of future language use interventions. 

Key words Bilingualism, language choice, non-linguistic cues

Riding the (brain) waves! Using neural oscillations to inform bilingualism research

Eleonora Rossi,  University of Florida

Sergio Miguel Pereira Soares, University of Konstanz; Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics

Yanina Prystauka,  UiT the Arctic University of Norway

Abstract The study of the brains' oscillatory activity has been a standard technique to gain insights into human neurocognition for a relatively long time. However, as a complementary analysis to ERPs, only very recently has it been utilized to study bilingualism and its neural underpinnings. Here, we provide a theoretical and methodological starter for scientists in the (psycho) linguistics and neurocognition of bilingualism field(s) to understand the bases and applications of this analytical tool. Towards this goal, we provide a description of the characteristics of the human neural (and its oscillatory) signal, followed by an in-depth description of various types of EEG oscillatory analyses, supplemented by figures and relevant examples. We then utilize the scant, yet emergent, literature on neural oscillations and bilingualism to highlight the potential of how analyzing neural oscillations can advance our understanding of the (psycho)linguistic and neurocognitive understanding of bilingualism. 

Key words EEG, neural oscillatory analysis, Bilingualism

Children' s likelihood to perform adult-like in word association test: Effects of bilingualism and distributional properties of word relationships

Boji P. W. Lam, Department of Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology, The University of North Texas, Denton, TX USA

Li Sheng,  Research Centre for Language, Cognition, and Neuroscience & Department of Chinese and Bilingual Studies, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China

Xian Zhang,  Department of Linguistics, The University of North Texas, Denton, TX USA

Abstract Little is known about the effects of bilingualism and distributional properties of word relationships on children's development of semantic convergence, operationalized as children's ability to produce word associates that mirror adults' responses in a word association task. Forty-five Mandarin–English bilingual, 32Spanish–English bilingual, and 28 English-speaking monolingual children, aged 4 to 7 , produced three associates to each of 15 single-word cues in English. Children's productions were compared against adult responses to the same cues in the "Small World of Words" Norm. Three scoring methods comparing similarities of children's responses to adults' showed consistent bilingual disadvantages in producing adult-like responses. Follow-up analyses targetedthethreemostpredominantresponsesadultsproducedforeachcueandaddressedfactors predicting children's likelihood to produce these responses. Results showed additional effects of cue-associate relationships measured by co-occurrence and semantic relatedness. The findings highlight the multi-faceted nature of knowledge development of word relationship and semantic convergence. 

Key words Semantic convergence, word association, Spanish–English bilingual children, Chinese-English bilingual children, the "Small World of Words"

Evidence for two stages of prediction in non-native speakers: A visual-world eye-tracking study

Ruth E. Corps, Psychology of Language Department, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom

Meijian Liao, Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom

Martin J. Pickering, Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom 

Abstract Comprehenders predict what a speaker is likely to say when listening to non-native (L2) and native (L1) utterances. But what are the characteristics of L2 prediction, and how does it relate to L1 prediction? We addressed this question in a visual-world eye-tracking experiment, which tested when L2 English comprehenders integrated perspective into their predictions. Male and female participants listened to male and female speakers producing sentences (e.g., I would like to wear the nice...) about stereotypically masculine (target: tie; distractor: drill) and feminine (target: dress; distractor: hairdryer) objects. Participants predicted associatively, fixating objects semantically associated with critical verbs (here, the tie and the dress). They also predicted stereotypically consistent objects (e.g., the tie rather than the dress, given the male speaker). Consistent predictions were made later than associative predictions, and were delayed for L2 speakers relative to L1 speakers. These findings suggest prediction involves both automatic and non-automatic stages. 

Key words prediction, bilingualism, perspective-taking, visual-world, eye-tracking

Rethinking Multilingual Experience through a Systems Framework of Bilingualism: Response to Commentaries

Debra A. Titone, Department of Psychology, McGill University; Centre for Research on Brain, Language, and Music, Montreal, Canada

Mehrgol Tiv, Department of Psychology, McGill University; Centre for Research on Brain, Language, and Music, Montreal, Canada

Abstract In Rethinking Multilingual Experience through a Systems Framework of Bilingualism (Titone & Tiv, 2022), we encouraged psycholinguists and cognitive neuroscientists to consider integrating SOCIAL and ECOLOGICAL aspects of multilingualism into a collective understanding of its cognitive and neurocognitive bases (i.e., to rethink experience). We then offered a framework – the S YSTEMS F RAMEWORK OF B ILINGUALISM – and described empirical challenges and potential solutions with applying this framework to new research. Since the paper’s publication, several eminent colleagues read and commented on our Keynote, noting both its strengths and areas for improvement. We read each commentary with enthusiasm and gratitude. Here, we briefly respond to several salient points raised, which led us to clarify and improve our theoretical approach. We first address what the commentaries agreed were strengths of the framework. We follow this with a discussion of what the commentaries stated could be improved or extended. We conclude with ways that we modified our model to collectively address concerns raised in the commentaries. 

Key words bilingualism, multilingualism, experience, cognition, sociolinguistics, ecolinguistics, social context, social ecology

第2期摘要

Prediction in bilingual sentence processing: How prediction differs in a later learned language from a first language

Judith Schlenter, Department of Language and Culture, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway

Abstract This review provides an update on what we know about differences in prediction in a first and second language after several years of extensive research. It shows when L1/L2 differences are most likely to occur and provides an explanation as to why they occur. For example, L2 speakers may capitalize more on semantic information for prediction than L1 speakers, or possibly they do not make predictions due to differences in the weighting of cues. A different weighting of cues can be the result of prior experience from the L1 and/or the prior experience in an experiment which affects L1 and L2 processing to a different extent. Overall, prediction in L2 processing often emerges later and/or is weaker than in L1 processing. Because L2 process- ing is generally slower, L1/L2 differences are likely to occur at certain levels of prediction, most notably at the form level, in line with a prediction-by-production mechanism. 

Key words prediction, sentence processing, bilingualism, visual-world eye-tracking, ERP

Morphological awareness and its role in early word reading in English monolinguals, Spanish–English, and Chinese–English simultaneous bilinguals

Rebecca A. Marks, Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; MGH Institute of Health Professions, Boston, MA 02129, USA;

Danielle Labotka, Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA

Xin Sun, Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA

Abstract Words' morphemic structure and their orthographic representations vary across languages. How do bilingual experiences with structurally distinct languages influence children's morphological processes for word reading? Focusing on English literacy in monolinguals and bilinguals (N=350, ages 5–9), we first revealed unique contributions of derivational ( friend-li-est) and compound (girl-friend) morphology to early word reading. We then exam- ined mechanisms of bilingual transfer in matched samples of Spanish–English and Chinese– English dual first language learners. Results revealed a principled cross-linguistic interaction between language group (Spanish vs. Chinese bilinguals) and type of morphological awareness. Specifically, bilinguals' proficiency with the type of morphology that was less characteristic of their home language explained greater variance in their English literacy. These findings showcase the powerful effects of bilingualism on word reading processes in children who have similar reading proficiency but different language experiences, thereby advancing theoretical perspectives on literacy across diverse learners.

Key words Morphological awareness, word reading, literacy development, bilingualism, bilingual transfer 

Changing pronoun interpretations across-languages: discourse priming in Spanish–English bilingual speakers

Carla Contemori, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas, USA

Natalia I. Minjarez Oppenheimer, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas, USA

Abstract Are bilingual speakers' representations of pronominal expressions completely independent in the two languages, or is there sharing of discourse-level representations cross-linguistically? In the present study, we address this question by using a sentence comprehension task that implements the cross-linguistic priming technique at the discourse-level. 

In two experiments conducted with Spanish–English bilinguals, we prime dis-preferred interpretations for ambiguous pronouns in the second language (English) by using first language (Spanish) pronoun interpretation primes. In experiment 1, Spanish null pronouns prime second-mentioned/object interpretations in English, showing an effect of priming. In experiment 2, Spanish explicit pronouns prime second-mentioned/object interpretations in English, indicating that an effect of priming approaches significance. 

The results demonstrate that bilinguals' inferences about probability distributions and coherence relations are susceptible to cross-linguistic influence. The strength of the priming effect is discussed within models of cross-language abstract representations. 

Key words pronoun resolution, bilinguals, cross-linguistic priming, Spanish, English

ERP differences between monolinguals and bilinguals: The role of linguistic distance

Cassandra Morrison, School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Canada, & Bruyère Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada

Vanessa Taler, School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Canada, & Bruyère Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada

Abstract A growing body of research suggests that bilingualism may afford benefits to certain aspects of cognitive functioning. Inconsistent findings may arise because of methodological differences within and across studies. One limitation is that studies often compare linguistically similar languages. The present study recorded brain activity (event-related potentials; ERPs) while English monolinguals, English–French bilinguals, and Arabic–English bilinguals completed an n-back task and a delayed matching-to-sample task. Group ERP differences were observed in the absence of behavioral differences. In the delayed matching-to-sample task, monolinguals exhibited smaller N2 amplitude compared to both bilingual groups, and smaller P3b amplitude compared to English–French bilinguals. In the n-back, English–French bilinguals displayed larger P3b amplitudes than monolinguals and Arabic–English bilinguals. P3b amplitude did not differ between Arabic–English bilinguals and monolinguals in either task. These results suggest that conflicting findings across studies may be due in part to the linguistic distance between the languages under study. 

Key words working memory, ERPs, Arabic–English bilinguals, English–French bilinguals, English monolinguals

Subcortical plasticity and enhanced neural synchrony in multilingual adults

Zahra Jafari, Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology Program, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 

Caroline Villeneuve, Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology Program, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 

Jordon Thompson, Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology Program, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

Abstract Whereas growing evidence supports the advantages of bilingualism for brain structure and function, no study has shown multilingual-related neuroplasticity in response to speech stimuli at the subcortical level. To investigate the impact of multilingualism on subcortical auditory processing, the speech auditory evoked response (speech-ABR) was recorded on 35 young adults. The multilingual group completed the language experience and proficiency questionnaire (LEAP-Q). The results were that multilingual participants demonstrated evidence of enhanced neural timing processing, including a shorter wave D latency and the V-A duration, and a sharper V-A slope compared to the monolinguals in silence. In the noise condition, the speech-ABR measures degraded in most components, and no significant difference was observed between the two groups. The association between the total proficiency score and several subcortical responses was significant. This shows subcortical evidence of stronger neural synchronization in multilinguals relative to monolinguals, correlated with the self-report of multilingual experince. 

Key words Multilingualism, Speech-ABR, Neural timing, Subcortical processing, Noise

Structured variation, language experience, and crosslinguistic influence shape child heritage speakers' Spanish direct objects

Naomi Shin,  The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA

Alejandro Cuza, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA

Liliana Sánchez, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA

Abstract This study investigates child heritage speakers' Spanish direct objects. A task designed to elicit direct objects was completed in Spanish and English by 40 child heritage speakers of Spanish in the U.S., and in Spanish by 24 monolingual children in Mexico. Both participant groups varied their direct object forms, following the same ranking: clitics>lexical NPs>omission>doubling. Animate referents promoted clitics; inanimate referents promoted lexical NPs. Among the heritage speakers, more Spanish experience and Spanish lexical proficiency predicted more clitic use (less omission and lexical NP use). We also argue that the child heritage speakers' production of strong pronouns, more lexical NPs, and masculine clitic lo with inanimate feminine referents suggest English influence. The study underscores the importance of examining structured variation, which revealed both similarities and differences between heritage and monolingual speakers. 

Key words child heritage speakers, direct object expression, direct object clitics, structured variation, animacy effects in morphosyntax, language experience, children’s direct objects, Spanish direct objects 

An ex-Gaussian analysis of eye movements in L2 reading

Steven G. Luke, Brigham Young University Provo, UT, USA 

Rachel Yu Liu, Brigham Young University Provo, UT, USA 

Kyle Nelson, Brigham Young University Provo, UT, USA

Abstract Second language learners' reading is less efficient and more effortful than native reading. However, the source of their difficulty is unclear; L2 readers might struggle with reading in a different orthography, or they might have difficulty with later stages of linguistic interpretation of the input, or both. The present study explored the source of L2 reading difficulty by analyzing the distribution of fixation durations in reading. In three studies, we observed that L2 readers experience an increase in Mu, which we interpret as indicating early orthographic processing difficulty, when the L2 has a significantly different writing system than the L1 (e.g., Chinese and English) but not when the writing systems were similar (e.g., Portuguese and English). L2 readers also experienced an increase in Tau, indicating later-arising processing difficulty which likely reflects later-stage linguistic processes, when they read for comprehen- sion. L2 readers of Chinese also experienced an additional increase in Tau. 

Key words reading, eye movements and reading, L2, second language, ex-Gaussian

Conceptual metaphor activation in Chinese–English bilinguals

Huilan Yang, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China 

J. Nick Reid,  University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada 

Yuru Mei, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China

Abstract An episodic memory experiment was conducted to examine whether "conceptual metaphors"influence how metaphorical expressions are processed and encoded into memory. Forty Chinese–English bilinguals read lists of expressions in their L1 and L2. The data revealed that after reading a series of metaphorical expressions based on the same underlying conceptual metaphor, participants falsely recognized new sentences that instantiated the same conceptual metaphor mapping more often than control sentences that did not share this mapping. This false memory effect was robust in both participants’ L1 and L2, with the only difference between languages being that participants showed more memory errors for literal sentences related to the source domain of the conceptual metaphors when reading in their second language (i.e., English). These data suggest that although bilinguals can access the appropriate conceptual metaphors in their second language, they have difficulty inhibiting literal meaning when processing metaphorical statements.

Key words conceptual metaphor theory, false memory, bilingualism

Tracking reading development in an English language university-level bridging program: evidence from eye-movements during passage reading

Daniel Schmidtke, Department of Linguistics and Languages, MELD Offfice, L.R. WIlson Hall, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada

Sadaf Rahmanian, Department of Linguistics and Languages, MELD Offfice, L.R. WIlson Hall, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada

Anna L. Moro, Department of Linguistics and Languages, MELD Offfice, L.R. WIlson Hall, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada

Abstract Increasing numbers of international students enter university education via English language bridging programs. Much research has overlooked the nature of second language reading development during a bridging program, focusing instead on the development of literacy skills of international students who already meet the language requirement for undergraduate admission. We report a longitudinal eye-movement study assessing English passage reading efficiency and comprehension in 405 Chinese-speaking bridging program students. Incoming IELTS reading scores were used as an index of baseline reading ability. Linear mixed-effects regression models fitted to global eye-movement measures and reading comprehension indicated that despite initial between-subjects differences, within-subject change at each ability level progressed at the same rate, following parallel growth trajectories. Therefore, there was significant overall reading progress during the bridging program, but no evidence that the gap between low and high ability readers either closed or widened over time. 

Key words eye-movements, reading development, international students, bridging programs

Orthographic and semantic priming effects in neighbour cognates: Experiments and simulations

Ton Dijkstra, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands

David Peeters, Department of Communication and Cognition, TiCC, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands;  Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, The Netherlands

Wessel Hieselaar, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands 

Abstract To investigate how orthography and semantics interact during bilingual visual word recognition, Dutch–English bilinguals made lexical decisions in two masked priming experiments. Dutch primes and English targets were presented that were either neighbour cognates (boek – BOOK), noncognate translations (kooi – CAGE), orthographically related neighbours (neus – NEWS), or unrelated words (huid - COAT). Prime durations of 50 ms (Experiment 1) and 83 ms (Experiment 2) led to similar result patterns. Both experiments reported a large cognate facilitation effect, a smaller facilitatory noncognate translation effect, and the absence of inhibitory orthographic neighbour effects. These results indicate that cognate facilitation is in large part due to orthographic-semantic resonance. Priming results for each condition were simulated well (all r's >.50) by Multilink+, a recent computational model for word retrieval. Limitations to the role of lateral inhibition in bilingual word recognition are discussed. 

Key words cognate, neighbour, translation, lateral inhibition, Multilink

Competition between form-related words in bilingual sentence reading: Effects of language proficiency

Maud Pélissier, Université Paris Cité, CLILLAC-ARP, F-75013 Paris, France 

Dag Haugland, University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway 

Bjørn Handeland, University of Agder, Kristiansand, Norway

Abstract Sentence reading involves constant competition between lexical candidates. Previous research with monolinguals has shown that the neighbours of a read word are inhibited, making their retrieval as a subsequent target more difficult, but the duration of this interference may depend on reading skills. In this study, we examined neighbour priming effects in sentence reading among proficient Norwegian–English bilinguals reading in their L2. We investigated the effects of the distance between prime and target (short vs. long) and the nature of the overlap between the two words (beginning or end), and related these to differences in individual cognitive skills. Our results replicated the inhibition effects found in monolinguals, albeit slightly delayed. Interference between form-related words was affected by the L2 reading skills and, crucially, by the phonological decoding abilities of the bilingual reader. We discuss the results in light of competition models of bilingual reading as well as episodic memory accounts. 

Key words competition, bilingual reading, eye movements, orthographic priming, individual differences 

Language switching in different contexts and modalities: Response-stimulus interval influences cued-naming but not voluntary-naming or comprehension language-switching costs

Angela de Bruin,  Department of Psychology, University of York, York, United Kingdom 

Tianyi Xu,  Department of Psychology, University of York, York, United Kingdom

Abstract Language switching is often associated with language competition and switching costs. However, the underlying mechanisms might differ depending on context (free versus cued naming) and modality (production or comprehension). In this study, we assessed how response-stimulus intervals (RSI) influence language-switching costs. Longer RSIs might provide more time for interference from the previous trial to decay and result in smaller switching costs. Mandarin–English bilinguals completed two dual-language production tasks (Experiment 1: cued and voluntary picture naming) and one comprehension task (Experiment 2: animacy judgement) with a short RSI and a long RSI condition. While switching costs were present in all tasks, they were only influenced by RSI length in the cued-production task, with smaller switching costs in the long RSI condition. In contrast, RSI did not influence voluntary-production or comprehension costs. This suggests that bilinguals might apply language control differently to switch languages depending on the type of switching and modality. 

Key words cued language switching, voluntary language switching, comprehension, response-stimulus interval

The foreign language effect on motivational quotes

Barbara Braida, Cognition and Brain Plasticity Unit, Departament de Cognició, Desenvolupament i Psicologia de l’Educació, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain; Grup de Recerca en Cognició i Llenguatge, Departament de Cognició, Desenvolupament i Psicologia de l’Educació, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain

Javier Rodríguez-Ferreiro, Grup de Recerca en Cognició i Llenguatge, Departament de Cognició, Desenvolupament i Psicologia de l’Educació, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain

Mireia Hernández, Cognition and Brain Plasticity Unit, Departament de Cognició, Desenvolupament i Psicologia de l’Educació, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain

Abstract According to the “reduced emotionality hypothesis”, we are less emotionally driven when reasoning in a foreign language (FL) than in a native language (NL). We examined whether this foreign language effect (FLe) extends to the way we perceive motivational quotes (i.e., encouraging slogans conveying a profound and inspirational message): we expected FL participants to rate motivational quotes as less profound than NL participants. Strikingly, we observed the opposite: FL participants found motivational quotes more profound than NL participants, even after controlling for potential confounders (e.g., IQ, reasoning style). Both FL and NL participants gave similarly low profundity ratings to pseudo-profound bullshit sentences (i.e., meaningless sentences sounding profound), indicating that the message must be meaningful for the FLe to arise. We propose that, like space or time, language could promote psychological distance. This favours a focus on the background of a message to indicate profoundness. 

Key words bilingualism, foreign language effect, FLe, decision-making, reasoning, pseudo-profound bullshit, motivational quotes, psychological distance 

Semantically related gestures facilitate language comprehension during simultaneous interpreting

Eléonore Arbona, Faculty of Translation and Interpreting, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland

Kilian G. Seeber,  Faculty of Translation and Interpreting, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland

Marianne Gullberg,  Centre for Languages and Literature and Lund University Humanities Lab, Lund University, Lund, Sweden

Abstract Manual co-speech gestures can facilitate language comprehension, but do they influence language comprehension in simultaneous interpreters, and if so, is this influence modulated by simultaneous interpreting (SI) and/or by interpreting experience? In a picture-matching task, 24 professional interpreters and 24 professional translators were exposed to utterances accompanied by semantically matching representational gestures, semantically unrelated pragmatic gestures, or no gestures while viewing passively (interpreters and translators) or during SI (interpreters only). During passive viewing, both groups were faster with semantically related than with semantically unrelated gestures. During SI, interpreters showed the same result. The results suggest that language comprehension is sensitive to the semantic relationship between speech and gesture, and facilitated when speech and gestures are semantically linked. This sensitivity is not modulated by SI or interpreting experience. Thus, despite simultaneous inter- preters' extreme language use, multimodal language processing facilitates comprehension in SI the same way as in all other language processing. 

Key words simultaneous interpreting, language comprehension, gestures, multimodality, bilingualism 

'Good for you!' Processing social emotions in L2 discourse comprehension: an ERP study

Andrea González-García Aldariz,  Universidad Antonio de Nebrija, Madrid, Spain

Pablo Rodríguez-Gómez, Cardenal Cisneros, Centro de Enseñanza Superior adscrito a la Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

Carlos Romero-Rivas, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

Abstract Social factors impact sentence comprehension in a first language (L1), suggesting that semantic processing cannot be dissociated from social and moral emotions in relation to pro/anti-social individuals. Given that integrating multiple types of information and processing emotion-laden pragmatic information is costlier in a second language (L2), we investigated whether social factors would affect discourse comprehension similarly in L2. Processing the outcomes of scenarios involving pro/antisocial protagonists provoked similar neural patterns in L2 as in L1 (Rodríguez-Gómez, Martín-Loeches, Colmenares, Romero Ferreiro & Moreno, 2020), suggesting that L2 users simultaneously integrate semantic and discourse-pragmatic information during sentence comprehension. 

Key words Bilingualism, Discourse processing, Event-related potentials, N400, Social feeling

Child, would you sacrifice yourself? A study on the Foreign Language Effect in children

Celia Fernández-Sanz, Departamento Interfacultativo de Psicología Evolutiva y de la Educación, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

Carlos Romero-Rivas, Departamento Interfacultativo de Psicología Evolutiva y de la Educación, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

Sara Rodriguez-Cuadrado, Departamento Interfacultativo de Psicología Evolutiva y de la Educación, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain

Abstract The moral foreign-language effect (M-FLE) translates into more utilitarian choices, even when given the option of self-sacrifice. We explore the M-FLE in 85 children, who were presented with seven moral dilemmas varying in utilitarianism, aversiveness, and whether they allowed the option of self-sacifice; 42 answered to the dilemmas in their native language (Spanish), and 43 in a foreign language (English). Participants were more utilitarian and willing to sac- rifice themselves when using their foreign language. Educational and developmental implica- tions are discussed, especially in the context of bilingual education.

Key words foreign language effect, moral dilemmas, decision-making, utilitarianism, self-sacrifice, bilingualism

Multilingualism and mentalizing abilities in adults

Ashley Chung-Fat-Yim, Northwestern University, Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Evanston, Illinois, United States

Ronda F. Lo, York University, Department of Psychology, Toronto, Ontario, Canada 

Raymond A. Mar, York University, Department of Psychology, Toronto, Ontario, Canada 

Abstract Bilingual children have better Theory-of-Mind compared to monolingual children, but comparatively little research has examined whether this advantage in social cognitive ability also applies to adults. The current study investigated whether multilingual status and/or number of known languages predicts performance on a mentalizing task in a large sample of adult participants. Multilingualism was decomposed based on whether English is the first language or not. All analyses controlled for well-known predictors of mentalizing, such as gender, same-race bias, and years of English fluency. We found a U-shaped trend, such that monolinguals and multilinguals did not differ much in their mentalizing ability, but bilinguals performed worse than monolinguals. Our study builds upon past work by examining a large sample of participants, measuring a crucial aspect of adult social cognition that has previously been unexplored, controlling for several nuisance variables, and investigating whether multilingualism leads to additional benefits in mentalizing abilities beyond bilingualism. 

Key words Multilingualism, Bilingualism, Social Cognition, Mentalizing Abilities, Theory-of-Mind

第3期摘要

Is the digit effect a cognate effect? Digits (still) differ from pictures in non-phonologically mediated language switching 

Hong Liu, Department of Applied Linguistics, Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou, China and Faculty of Humanities 

Adel Chaouch-Orozco, Department of Chinese and Bilingual Studies, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, Chin

Abstract Language control in bilinguals is often investigated with the language switching paradigm. Switch costs reflect the ease/difficulty of applying this control mechanism. The type of stimuli employed in the experiments may influence switch costs. To date, only one study has compared digit vs picture processing, reporting reduced switch costs for digits (Declerck, Koch & Philipp, 2012). This result was adjudicated to phonological overlap between the languages used. Crucially, it remains an open question whether this digit effect generalises to language combinations without phonological relation. We fill this gap by investigating language switching with two language pairs differing in relative proficiency (L1 Chinese–L2 English, L1 Chinese–L3 French), where cross-language phonological activation is not expected. Overall, a digit effect is observed in the Chinese–English pair. Contrary to Declerck et al.’s (2012) find- ing, digits increased switch costs. Phonological mediation cannot explain this effect; instead, we suggest its origin lies in within-language word association links.

Key words bilingualism, switch costs, language control, digit naming, picture naming

Emotional factors of early vocabulary in Spanish as a second language

Natividad Hernández Muñoz, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain 

Ana Blanco Canales, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain

Abstract Previous studies analysing the differences in emotionality in first and second language suggest that affective content of lexical items is modulated in certain contexts. This paper investigates the differences in valence and arousal ratings for 300 early words, in both oral and written modalities, through speakers’ subjective appraisal of words given by two immersion groups of Spanish late bilinguals (Chinese and European) compared with a group of native speakers. The main goal of our study is to identify the lexical areas where variability occurs, regarding to a set of affective (emotional charge and intensity), grammatical (nouns, adjectives and verbs) and semantic (concreteness) features of words. Our results show that valence is the dimension where the greatest variability is observed between native and bilinguals, although the influence of the independent factors differs considerably. Besides, arousal yields illuminating data regarding the grammatical category of words and differentiation between the groups of participants. 

Key words emotional factors, bilingual lexicon, Spanish vocabulary, valence, arousal

Multilingualism and verbal short-term/working memory: Evidence from academics

Valantis Fyndanis,  Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus; MultiLing/ Department of Linguistics and Scandinavian Studies, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

Sarah Cameron, MultiLing/ Department of Linguistics and Scandinavian Studies, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

Pernille Bonnevie Hansen, Department of Humanities, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Hamar, Norway; MultiLing/ Department of Linguistics and Scandinavian Studies, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

Abstract To date, the evidence regarding the effect of bilingualism/multilingualism on short-term memory (STM) and working memory (WM) capacity is inconclusive. This study investigates whether multilingualism has a positive effect on the verbal STM and WM capacity of neuro-typical middle-aged and older individuals. Eighty-two L1-Norwegian sequential bilingual/ multilingual academics were tested with tasks measuring verbal STM/WM capacity. Degree of bilingualism/multilingualism for each participant was estimated based on a comprehensive questionnaire. Different measures of bilingualism/multilingualism were used. Data on potentially influencing non-linguistic factors were also collected. Correlation and regression analyses showed that multilingualism impacts both verbal STM and verbal WM. In particular, all analyses showed that number of known foreign languages was the strongest predictor of verbal STM and WM capacity. The results are discussed in light of recent studies on the impact of bilingualism on STM/WM and on recent proposals regarding the mechanism underlying so-called bilingual advantage. 

Key words bilingualism, multilingualism, verbal working memory, verbal short-term memory

Consequences of mixing and switching languages for retrieval and articulation

Maria Fernanda Gavino, Department of Linguistics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA 

Matthew Goldrick, Department of Linguistics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA

Abstract A large literature has shown that language context –mixing and switching between languages – impacts lexical access processes during bilingual speech production. Recent work has suggested parallel contextual effects of language context on the phonetic realization of speech sounds, consistent with interactions between lexical access and phonetic processes. In this pre-registered study, we directly examine the link between lexical access and phonetic processes in Spanish– English bilinguals using picture naming. Using automated acoustic analysis, we simultaneously gather measures of reaction time (indexing lexical access) and acoustic properties of the initial consonant and vowel (indexing phonetic processes) for the same speakers on the same trials. Across measures, we find consistent, robust effects of mixing and language dominance. In contrast, while switching effects are robust in reaction time measures, they are not detected in phonetic measures. These inconsistent effects suggest there are constraints on the degree of interaction between lexical access and phonetic processes. 

Key words phonetics, lexical access, interaction, Spanish–English bilinguals

The contributions of proficiency and semantics to the bilingual sentence superiority effect

Portia N. Washington, Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, USA

Robert W. Wiley, Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, USA

Abstract A long-standing question about bilingualism concerns which representations are shared across languages. Recent work has revealed a bilingual Sentence Superiority Effect (SSE) among French–English bilinguals reading mixed-language sentences: identification of target words is more accurate in syntactically grammatical than ungrammatical sentences. While this ability to connect words across the two languages has been attributed to a rapid parsing of shared syntactic representations, outstanding questions remain about the role of semantics. Here, we replicate the SSE in Spanish–English bilinguals (e.g., better identification of vacío in "my vaso is vacío" [my glass is empty] than "is vaso my vacío" [is glass my empty]). Importantly, we report evidence that semantics do contribute to word identification, but sig- nificantly less than syntax and only in the context of syntactically grammatical sentences. Moreover, the effect is moderated by language proficiency, further constraining the conditions under which shared cross-linguistic representations are rapidly accessed in the bilingual mind. 

Key words shared syntax, sentence processing, sentence superiority effect, bilingual proficiency

Graded bilingual effects on attentional network function in Chinese high school students

Adam John Privitera, College of Liberal Arts, Wenzhou-Kean University, Wenzhou, China; Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Mohammad Momenian,  Department of Chinese and Bilingual Studies, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Brendan Weekes, Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong; Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; School of Psychology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia

Abstract Effective communication in multilingual environments requires bilinguals to constantly monitor linguistic cues. It is hypothesized that the constant need to monitor may result in improved attention. However, previous investigations have reported mixed, often null results, with positive findings attributed to non-linguistic variables. To address these issues, we investigated whether higher levels of bilingualism were associated with improved attentional function in a sample of culturally and socioeconomically homogenous Mandarin–English speaking bilingual adolescents. Participants completed the Attention Network Task to assess attentional network function. Data were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models in order to account for nontrivial differences. Mixed results provide partial support for domain general cognitive benefits associated with higher levels of bilingualism. Both improved and reduced performance differed based on the specific dimension of bilingualism and the attentional net-work assessed. Findings support the conclusion that separable dimensions of bilingual language experience assert different influences on attentional network function. 

Key words executive function, attention, bilingual effects, ANT, mixed-effects modeling

The role of daily spoken language on the performance of language tests: The Indonesian experience

Heni Gerda Pesau, Atma Jaya University, Makassar, Sulawesi, Indonesia 

Aria Saloka Immanuel, Udayana University, Bali, Indonesia 

Augustina Sulastri, Soegijapranata Catholic University, Semarang, Indonesia

Abstract The performance of cognitive tests is highly dependent on the proficiency of the language in which the tests are administered. Not all Indonesians speak Indonesian daily and many are bilingual. We investigate whether language(s) spoken affects the performance on three language tests in 840 participants ranging in age (16–80) and education (6–22 years). Analysis of covariance followed by Helmert contrasts showed a disadvantage on the Boston Naming Test (BNT) and on the most difficult items of the Token Test for those who do not speak Bahasa daily. Bilinguals did worse on the BNT. Education had a large positive effect on the language tests, age a smaller negative effect. This suggests that besides age and education, the factor of language spoken, either in public or at home, needs to be taken into account when a participant’s test scores on the BNT and TT are interpreted and compared with normative data. 

Key words daily language(s) in public, language spoken at home, verbal fluency, Boston Naming Test, Token Test, Bahasa Indonesia 

On trade-offs in bilingualism and moving beyond the Stacking the Deck fallacy

Evelina Leivada, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain

Vittoria Dentella, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain

Camilla Masullo, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain

Abstract Despite a meteoric rise, results in the cognitive science of bilingualism present with significant inconsistency. In parallel, there is a striking absence of an ecologically valid theory within bilingualism research. How should one interpret the totality of available data that can pull in opposing directions? To proceed, we need to identify which practices impede progression. Hitherto, we bring to the fore an undiscussed practice, contextualizing how it impacts the ability to embed the available results into an overarching theory. We suggest that a STACKING THE DECK FALLACY – the tendency to engage differently with available evidence, directing focus to specific sub-samples – hampers theory formation. We put forth a proposal for making pro- gress, building on the premise that what is lacking in the field is a unifying perspective that reconciles seemingly contradictory results. We suggest that the necessary shift of perspective towards progress crucially entails linking the notions of SPECTRUM and TRADE - OFF.  

L1-Korean speakers' definiteness processing in L2 English: A visual world paradigm eye tracking study

Hyunah Ahn, Kunsan National University, Gunsan, Korea 

Mi-Jeong Song,  Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea

Abstract This study investigated whether L1-Korean L2-English speakers could use (in)definiteness to predict unmentioned (non-)unique referents. In previous studies on the topic, methodological considerations made it difficult to separate the effects of grammar from the effects of non- linguistic knowledge. We used a visual world paradigm eye-tracking task to resolve such issues and designed stimuli that focused only on (in)definiteness. Participants' eye movements were recorded as they heard "Click on the/a blue circle." L1 and advanced L2 speakers used defin- iteness information to predict unique referents before the critical noun (circle) was heard while indefinite articles were not utilized to the same extent. Intermediate L2 speakers relied heavily on color words, not articles, to locate a referent. The results imply that predicting a referent solely based on definiteness (without real-world knowledge) requires substantial advancement in L2 development, and indefinite articles do not predict non-unique referents as clearly as definite articles predict unique referents. 

Key words L2 definiteness processing, visual world paradigm eye-tracking, definiteness as uniqueness, real-world knowledge, L2 predictive processing 

The foreign-language effect on self-positivity bias: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence

Wanyu Zhang, School of Foreign Languages, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China

Yuxin Lan, College of Foreign Language Education, China West Normal University, Nanchong, China

Qian Li, School of Foreign Languages, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China

Abstract Previous research has shown that using foreign languages reduces cognitive biases. Here, we investigate whether this foreign-language effect extends to self-related cognition – in particular, the self-positivity bias, which refers to automatic association of oneself with positive information and has a facilitation role in maintaining mental health. We applied event-related brain potentials and oscillations in the implicit association test where Chinese–English bilinguals responded to category words (self vs. others) and attribute words (positive vs. negative) in either their native language Chinese or their foreign language English. In response to Chinese words, a self-positivity bias occurred, indexed by a positive D-score in reaction times as well as by smaller N200, larger P3-like/LPC responses, and lower alpha desynchronization when self words were associated with positive relative to negative traits. However, the bias was diminished in the English context. Overall, our findings provide important implications for language choices when self-protective mechanisms should be enhanced. 

Key words foreign-language effect, self-positivity bias, implicit association test (IAT), event-related potential (ERP), event-related spectral perturbation (ERSP) 

Linguistic factors modulating gender assignment in Spanish–English bilingual speech

Abel Cruz, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, CA, USA

Abstract Drawing on naturally-occurring bilingual speech from a well-defined codeswitching community in Southern Arizona, this study examined the influence of semantic gender (a.k.a. bio- logical gender), analogical gender, and other-language phonemic cues in modulating gender assignment in Spanish–English codeswitched speech. Thirty-four Spanish–English early bilinguals completed a forced-choice elicitation task involving two codeswitching environments: Spanish determiner–English noun switches (Task 1) and English–Spanish switched copula constructions (Task 2). The results revealed that for human-denoting nouns, bilinguals assigned grammatical gender based on the presupposed sex of a noun’s referent in both syntactic environments tested. As for inanimate nouns, bilinguals were more likely to assign masculine over feminine gender to such nouns in determiner–noun switches, but not in switched copula constructions. Other-language phonemic cues did not influence the assignment mechanism. A methodological implication is that the study replicated the codeswitching patterns observed in naturally-occurring bilingual speech from the same bilingual community.  

Key words codeswitching, gender assignment, early bilinguals, experimental data

The effects of multilingual and multicultural practices on divergent thinking. Implications for plurilingual creativity paradigm

Anatoliy V. Kharkhurin, HSE University, Moscow, Russia

Valeriya Koncha, HSE University, Moscow, Russia 

Morteza Charkhabi, HSE University, Moscow, Russia

Abstract This study opens a project that empirically investigates the Plurilingual Creativity paradigm. This paradigm expands the Multilingual Creative Cognition by making shifts in the conceptualization of the phenomena of multilingualism and creativity, respectively. We examined how multilingual and multicultural factors can contribute to divergent thinking. Online data collection included assessments of language repertoire, multicultural experience, intercultural competence, and divergent thinking. A series of regression analyses obtained evidence for the direct contribution of language repertoire, intercultural competence components and multicultural experience to divergent thinking. In addition, language repertoire was found to moderate the link between management of intercultural interaction and fluency, multicultural experience and both flexibility and originality in divergent thinking. These findings emphasize the importance of considering the contribution of plurilingual/pluricultural factors of language repertoire, multicultural experience, and intercultural competence to creativity. Thereby, these findings provide empirical support for the conceptual shift toward plurilingual creativity.

Key words plurilingualism, pluriculturalism, intercultural competence, creativity, divergent thinking, multilingualism, multiculturalism, bilingualism 

On the way to an interpreter advantage in coordination: evidence from interpreting students across different training stages

Fei Zhong, School of Foreign Languages, Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, Chengdu, China

Yanping Dong, School of International Studies, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

Abstract Despite extensive discussions on interpreter advantages in nonverbal abilities/skills, the advantage in coordination remains underexplored, with little evidence from interpreting students across different training stages. To fill the gap, the present study conducted two experiments with the Psychological Refractory Period dual-task consisting of two discrimination tasks presented either alone or together. Smaller dual-task costs in Task 1 and/or Task 2 are considered indices for better coordination (with smaller costs restricted to Task 2 further suggesting better bottleneck coordination). Experiment 1, focusing on the intermediate training stage, revealed a bottleneck coordination advantage for interpreting students over controls, which differs from the task instantiation and/or bottleneck access advantage found for professional interpreters in Strobach et al. (2015). Experiment 2, focusing on the beginning stage, revealed no group differences between controls and interpreting students with less/more training (Experiment 2a/2b respectively), suggesting no evidence for an interpreter advantage in coordination. Developmental changes are discussed. 

Key words interpreter advantage, dual-task, coordination skill, bottleneck switching, developmental change

The association between language exposure and nonword repetition performance in bilingual children: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Gianmatteo Farabolini, Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy

Analí R. Taboh, Laboratorio de Neurociencia, Universidad Torcuato Di Tella, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Departamento de Física, FCEyN, UBA and IFIBA, Conicet, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Maria Gabriella Ceravolo, Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy 

Abstract We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis on the association between nonword repetition (NWR) and language exposure in bilingual children and explored whether the association is influenced by other variables. We performed a blind literature review on ERIC and Google Scholar, a random-effects model meta-analysis and subgroup analyses to test potential moderators. Out of 822 screened articles, we identified 24 works including 1399 children. Significant associations were found using either cumulative or current exposure, language-like nonwords, phoneme NWR scoring, in children with typical language development. Nonsignificant associations were found in studies either using age of first exposure, on children older than six, with less than 50 participants, using NWR lists containing 16-24 nonwords or with participants having different native languages. Weak associations were found when considering whole-word scoring or gray literature. We highlight the contributions of different variables to NWR, and evidence to optimally design NWR for bilingual language assessment. 

Key words nonword repetition, language exposure, bilingualism, systematic review, meta-analysis, children

期刊简介

Bilingualism: Language and Cognition is an international peer-reviewed journal focusing on bilingualism from a linguistic, psycholinguistic, and neuroscientific perspective. The aims of the journal are to promote research on the bilingual and multilingual person and to encourage debate in the field. Areas covered include: bilingual language competence, bilingual language processing, bilingual language acquisition in children and adults, bimodal bilingualism, neurolinguistics of bilingualism in normal and brain-damaged individuals, computational modelling of bilingual language competence and performance, and the study of cognitive functions in bilinguals. The journal maintains an inclusive attitude to research involving all languages, and we specifically encourage the study of less well researched languages (including especially minority and minoritized languages) to increase our understanding of how language and cognition interact in the bilingual individual. 

《双语：语言与认知》是一本国际同行评议的期刊，主要从语言学、心理语言学和神经科学的角度探讨双语现象。该杂志的目的是促进对双语和多语的人群的研究，并鼓励在该领域的争鸣。议题包括:双语语言能力、双语语言加工、儿童和成人双语语言习得、双模双语、正常人和脑损伤者双语能力的神经语言学、双语语言能力和表现的计算建模、双语者认知功能的研究。该杂志对涉及所有语言的研究持包容态度，我们特别鼓励对研究较少的语言(特别是少数民族和少数民族语言)的研究，以增加我们对双语人群语言和认知如何相互作用的理解。

官网地址：

https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bilingualism-language-and-cognition

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